United Nations (UN) : Structure and Functions

 Structure and Functions of the United Nations (UN)

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization that was established on October 24, 1945, after World War II. It was created to maintain peace and security in the world and to promote cooperation among countries. The UN currently has 193 member countries.

 

Structure of the United Nations

The UN has six main organs that help it function smoothly. Each organ has a specific role.

1. General Assembly

• It is like a global parliament where all 193 member countries are represented.
• The main deliberative and policymaking body of the UN.
• Each country has one vote, no matter how big or small it is.
• Meets annually in New York for a general debate.
• It discusses important global issues, such as peace, human rights, and development.
• Requires a two-thirds majority to make a decision.
• It makes recommendations, but its decisions are not legally binding.
• Elects a President every year.

2. Security Council

• It is responsible for maintaining international peace and security.
• It has 15 members (5 permanent and 10 non-permanent).
• The 5 permanent members (USA, UK, France, Russia, and China) have a special power called veto, which allows them to stop any decision.
• It can send peacekeeping forces, impose sanctions, or authorize military action if necessary.

3. International Court of Justice (ICJ)

• It is also known as the World Court and is based in The Hague, Netherlands.
• It settles legal disputes between countries.
• It gives advice on international law.
• Only countries can bring cases to the ICJ, not individuals.

4. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

• It works on global economic, social, and environmental issues.
• It coordinates the work of UN agencies like WHO (World Health Organization), UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), and UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund).
• It helps in poverty reduction, education, and sustainable development.
• Has 54 members, elected for three-year terms.

5. Secretariat

• It is the administrative body of the UN.
• It is headed by the Secretary-General, who is the leader and spokesperson of the UN.
• The Secretary-General serves a 5-year term.
• The Secretariat carries out day-to-day work like preparing reports and organizing peace missions.

6. Trusteeship Council

• It was originally created to help colonies become independent nations.
• Since all former colonies have gained independence, this council stopped its operations in 1994.
• It now meets only when necessary.

 

Functions of the United Nations

The UN performs many important functions to ensure peace, security, and development in the world.

1. Maintaining International Peace and Security

• The UN prevents wars and conflicts between countries.
• It sends peacekeeping forces to troubled areas.
• It helps in peace negotiations and conflict resolution.

2. Protecting Human Rights

• The UN promotes fundamental human rights like freedom of speech, equality, and justice.
• It has a special agency called the UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC) to monitor violations.
• It supports victims of war, violence, and discrimination.

3. Providing Humanitarian Aid

• The UN helps countries affected by natural disasters, conflicts, and famine.
• Organizations like UNICEF, WHO, and the World Food Programme (WFP) provide food, medicine, and shelter to needy people.

4. Promoting Sustainable Development

• The UN helps countries achieve economic growth while protecting the environment.
• It has created the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to fight poverty, hunger, and climate change.

5. Supporting International Law

• The UN creates and enforces international laws to maintain order in global relations.
• The International Court of Justice (ICJ) resolves disputes and ensures justice among nations.

6. Promoting Education, Science, and Culture

• UNESCO works to promote education, scientific research, and cultural heritage.
• It protects historical sites and traditions around the world.

7. Addressing Climate Change

• The UN works to reduce global warming and pollution.
• It organizes global climate conferences like the Paris Agreement to find solutions for environmental protection.

 

Conclusion

The United Nations plays a crucial role in ensuring peace, security, and development across the world. It brings nations together to solve global problems and improve people’s lives. Although it faces challenges, the UN continues to work for a better and more peaceful world.

ELEMENTS OF NOVEL

Various elements of a novel are:

·         Characters: Characters are the individuals who drive the story forward through their actions, thoughts, and interactions. They can be protagonists, antagonists, or supporting characters, each with their own traits, motivations, and arcs.

·         Setting: The setting of a novel refers to the time and place in which the story unfolds. It includes not only the physical location but also the historical period, cultural context, and atmosphere, all of which contribute to the overall mood and tone of the narrative.

·         Plot: The plot is the sequence of events that make up the storyline. It typically includes exposition (introduction of characters and setting), rising action (development of conflict), climax (the turning point of the story), falling action (resolution of conflict), and resolution (conclusion).

·         Conflict: Conflict is the central struggle or problem faced by the characters. It can be internal (within a character's mind or emotions) or external (between characters or with outside forces) and drives the narrative forward by creating tension and obstacles for the characters to overcome.

·         Theme: The theme is the underlying message or central idea explored in the novel. It often reflects universal truths about the human condition, society, or morality and can be expressed through various elements such as plot, characters, and symbols.

·         Point of View: Point of view refers to the perspective from which the story is told. It can be first person (narrated by a character within the story), third person limited (narrated by an external observer who focuses on one character's thoughts and feelings), or third person omniscient (narrated by an external observer who knows the thoughts and feelings of multiple characters).

·         Style and Tone: The style of writing encompasses the author's use of language, syntax, and literary devices to convey meaning and create atmosphere. Tone refers to the author's attitude or emotional stance toward the subject matter, which can range from humorous to serious, formal to informal.

·         Symbolism: Symbolism involves the use of objects, characters, or events to represent abstract ideas or concepts. It adds depth and layers of meaning to the narrative, allowing readers to interpret the story on multiple levels.

·         Foreshadowing and Flashback: Foreshadowing hints at future events in the story, building suspense and anticipation, while flashback interrupts the chronological sequence to provide background information or context.

·         Dialogue: Dialogue is the conversation between characters, which reveals their personalities, relationships, and advances the plot. It should be authentic and serve a purpose within the narrative.

These elements work together to create a cohesive and engaging narrative that captivates readers and explores the complexities of the human experience. Each element contributes to the overall structure, depth, and impact of the novel, making it a rich and immersive literary form.

Characteristics of Novel

 What is a Novel

A novel is a long, fictional narrative written in prose that explores characters, plots, and themes in a structured and extended format. It is one of the most popular literary forms in present days. It offers readers an immersive experience through its detailed storytelling and character development.

Characteristics of a Novel

1. Extended Length: Unlike short stories, a novel is typically longer, allowing for in-depth character and plot development.
2. Complex Plot: Novels usually have a well-structured plot with multiple events, conflicts, and resolutions. The storyline can be linear or non-linear, involving flashbacks or multiple perspectives.
3. Character Development: One of the most important features of a novel is its ability to deeply explore characters’ thoughts, emotions, and transformations over time. Protagonists and supporting characters evolve through the course of the narrative.
4. Setting: The setting provides the backdrop for the story, encompassing time, place, and atmosphere. It can be realistic, historical, futuristic, or fantastical, influencing the mood and tone of the novel.
5. Themes: Novels often explore universal themes such as love, identity, power, morality, and human nature. These themes provide deeper meaning and insight into life and society.
6. Narrative Style and Point of View: Novels can be written in the first person, third person limited, or third person omniscient perspectives, influencing how the story is told and perceived by the reader.
7. Use of Literary Devices: Novelists use literary techniques such as symbolism, foreshadowing, irony, and metaphors to enrich the storytelling and engage readers.
8. Dialogue and Description: A novel balances dialogue and descriptive passages to reveal character personalities, advance the plot and create vivid imagery.
9. Emotional and Psychological Depth: Many novels delve into the inner lives of characters, exploring their thoughts, conflicts, and emotions, making them relatable and realistic.
10. Genres and Diversity: Novels span multiple genres, including historical, romance, mystery, fantasy, science fiction, and contemporary fiction, offering diverse storytelling styles and perspectives.

These characteristics make novels a powerful medium for storytelling, capable of entertaining, educating, and provoking thought.

Characters in Henrik Ibsen’s Ghosts

Introduction 

Henrik Ibsen’s 'Ghosts' (1881) presents a powerful critique of societal norms through its deeply symbolic characters. The psychological drama revolves around five characters. Each character embodies the themes of hypocrisy, morality, and the burden of the past. This presentation explores their roles and significance.

Mrs. Helene Alving – The Tragic Mother and Feminist Figure

Mrs. Alving is the central character of the play. She is a woman trapped by societal expectations, yet she struggles to break free from them. As a widow, she has dedicated her life to upholding the false image of her late husband, Captain Alving, despite knowing about his moral corruption.

Key Traits:

• Intelligent and independent but socially constrained.
• Seeks to free herself and her son from the "ghosts" of the past.
• Her ultimate tragedy lies in realizing that her efforts have failed—her son is doomed by his father's sins.

Significance:

·         Mrs. Alving represents the plight of women in a patriarchal society. She initially obeys societal norms but later recognizes their destructive nature. She is one of Ibsen’s early feminist characters, much like Nora in A Doll’s House, but unlike Nora, she cannot escape her circumstances.

Oswald Alving – The Doomed Son

Oswald is Mrs. Alving’s son, an artist who has spent years in Paris. He returns home suffering from inherited syphilis, which he euphemistically calls "the joy of life" turning into "the worm."

Key Traits:

• A free thinker shaped by liberal European ideals.
• A tragic figure burdened by his father’s sins.
• His condition symbolizes the inescapability of the past.

Significance:

·         Oswald represents the consequences of societal repression. He inherits his father’s disease both physically (syphilis) and metaphorically (the destructive effects of societal hypocrisy). His final plea for euthanasia forces his mother into a painful moral dilemma, symbolizing the devastating cost of inherited guilt.

Pastor Manders – The Hypocritical Moralist

Pastor Manders is a clergyman who upholds strict moral values but is blind to the real suffering caused by those values. He is an old acquaintance of Mrs. Alving and dissuaded her from leaving her husband in the past.

Key Traits:

• Self-righteous and obsessed with public opinion.
• Blindly upholds societal norms, even at the cost of individual suffering.
• Easily manipulated by others, particularly Engstrand.

Significance:

·         Manders embodies the hypocrisy of religious and social institutions. He preaches morality but lacks true compassion, making him an ironic figure—he fears scandal more than actual wrongdoing. His failure to act morally despite his position as a clergyman exposes Ibsen’s critique of organized religion.

Jakob Engstrand – The Manipulative Opportunist

Engstrand is a carpenter and Regina’s supposed father. He is a cunning and self-serving man who manipulates others for his own benefit.

Key Traits:

• A master of deception, using religious language to appear virtuous.
• Seeks to establish a "home for wayward sailors" to make money.
• Uses guilt to control Pastor Manders.

Significance:

·         Engstrand represents the opportunistic lower class that exploits social hypocrisy for personal gain. Unlike Manders, he does not pretend to be morally upright but uses the facade of religious charity to advance his interests.

Regina Engstrand – The Ambitious Maid

Regina is a young woman working as Mrs. Alving’s maid. She believes Jakob Engstrand is her father but later learns that she is Captain Alving’s illegitimate daughter.

Key Traits:

• Ambitious and wants to escape her low social status.
• Strong-willed, refusing to be manipulated by Engstrand.
• Initially attracted to Oswald but horrified upon learning they are half-siblings.

Significance:

·         Regina is another victim of Captain Alving’s moral corruption. She symbolizes the struggles of lower-class women who seek social mobility but are ultimately trapped by their circumstances. When she realizes her fate, she chooses to leave, unlike Mrs. Alving, who remains bound by duty.

Conclusion

The characters in Ghosts represent different aspects of Ibsen’s critique of Victorian society. Mrs. Alving and Oswald are tragic figures burdened by the past, while Pastor Manders and Engstrand embody the hypocrisy of religion and social norms. Regina, caught in the middle, reflects the harsh realities of class and gender oppression.